Topic Overview
Is this topic for you?
This topic talks about the
testing, diagnosis, and treatment of cervical cancer. For general information
about abnormal Pap test results, see the topic
Abnormal Pap Test.
What is cervical cancer?
Cervical cancer occurs
when abnormal cells on the
cervix grow out of control. The cervix is the lower
part of the uterus that opens into the vagina. Cervical cancer can often be successfully treated when it's found early. It is usually found at a very early stage through
a
Pap test.
Cervical cancer is one of the most common cancers in women.
What causes cervical cancer?
Most cervical cancer
is caused by a virus called
human papillomavirus, or HPV. You can get HPV by
having
sexual contact with someone who has it. There are many
types of the HPV virus. Not all types of HPV cause cervical cancer. Some of
them cause
genital warts, but other types may not cause any
symptoms.
You can have HPV for years and not know it. It stays in
your body and can lead to cervical cancer years after you were infected. This
is why it is important for you to have regular Pap tests. A Pap test can find
changes in cervical cells before they turn into cancer. If you treat these cell
changes, you may prevent cervical cancer.
What are the symptoms?
Abnormal cervical cell
changes rarely cause symptoms. But you may have symptoms if those cell changes
grow into cervical cancer. Symptoms of cervical cancer may include:
- Bleeding from the vagina that is not normal,
or a change in your
menstrual cycle that you can't explain.
- Bleeding when something comes in contact with your cervix, such as
during sex or when you put in a diaphragm.
- Pain during
sex.
- Vaginal discharge that is tinged with blood.
How is cervical cancer diagnosed?
As part of your
regular pelvic exam, you should have a Pap test. During a Pap test, the doctor
scrapes a small sample of cells from the surface of the cervix to look for cell
changes. If a Pap test shows abnormal cell changes, your doctor may do other
tests to look for precancerous or cancer cells on your cervix.
Your doctor may also do a Pap test and take a sample of tissue (biopsy) if you have symptoms of cervical cancer, such
as bleeding after sex.
How is it treated?
The treatment for most
stages of cervical cancer includes:
Depending on how much the cancer has grown, you may have
one or more treatments. And you may have a combination of treatments. If you have a hysterectomy, you won't be able to have children. But a hysterectomy isn't always needed, especially when cancer is found very early.
It's common to feel scared, sad, or angry after finding out that you have
cervical cancer. Talking to others who have had the disease may help you feel
better. Ask your doctor about support groups in your area. You can also find
people online who will share their experiences with you.
Can cervical cancer be prevented?
The Pap test is
the best way to find cervical cell changes that can lead to cervical cancer.
Regular Pap tests almost always show these cell changes before they turn into
cancer. It's important to follow up with your doctor after any abnormal Pap
test result so you can treat abnormal cell changes. This may help prevent cervical
cancer.
If you are age 26 or younger, you can get the HPV vaccine, which protects against two types of HPV that cause cervical cancer.
The virus that causes
cervical cancer is spread through sexual contact. The best way to avoid getting
a
sexually transmitted infection is to not have
sex. If you do have sex, practice safer sex, such as
using condoms and limiting the number of sex partners you have.
Frequently Asked Questions
|
Learning about cervical cancer:
|
|
|
Being diagnosed:
|
|
|
Getting treatment:
|
|
|
Living with cervical cancer:
|
|
|
End-of-life issues:
|
|
Cause
Cervical cancer is caused by severe
abnormal changes in the cells of the
cervix. Most precancerous or cancerous cell changes
occur in the cervix at the
transformation zone, because these cells normally
undergo constant change. During this natural process of change, some cervical
cells can become abnormal if you are infected with
high-risk types of HPV.
Other factors
may play a role in causing cervical cancer, such as having more than one sex partner or smoking cigarettes. For more information on risk, see What Increases Your Risk.
Symptoms
Abnormal cervical cell changes rarely
cause symptoms. If cervical cell changes progress
to
cancer, symptoms may include:
- Abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge that may
have mucus and be tinged with blood.
- A significant
unexplained change in your
menstrual cycle.
- Bleeding when something
comes in contact with the cervix, such as during sex or when you
insert a diaphragm.
- Pain during sex.
The symptoms of advanced cervical cancer may include:
- Anemia because
of abnormal vaginal bleeding.
- Ongoing pelvic, leg, or back
pain.
- Urinary problems because of blockage of a kidney or
ureter.
- Leakage of urine or stool
into the
vagina. This can happen when an abnormal opening (fistula) has developed between the vagina and the
bladder or rectum.
- Weight loss.
What Happens
Cervical cancer happens when abnormal cells on the cervix grow out of control. Cervical cancer can often be successfully treated when it's found early. It is usually found at a very early stage through a Pap test.
If
cervical cancer isn't treated, it may spread from the
cervix to the vagina, and then into deeper tissue layers
of connective tissue around the uterus. As it progresses, it may spread to the
pelvic
lymph nodes and other pelvic organs.
Advanced-stage cancer may spread to lymph nodes; to
other organs in the pelvis, causing problems with kidney and bowel function; or
to other organs in the body, such as the liver and lungs.
Treatment of cervical cancer depends on the stage of your cancer and if it has spread. To learn more, see Treatment Overview.
What Increases Your Risk
Things that may increase your risk for
cervical cancer include:
When To Call a Doctor
Call your doctor if you have:
- Unexpected bleeding between menstrual
periods.
- Menstrual periods that are irregular or 1½ to 2 times
longer than normal for 3 months in a row. For example, call if your periods usually last 6 days but have been lasting between 9 and 12 days for your last 3 periods.
- Severe vaginal bleeding that causes you to soak 1 or 2 pads or tampons in 1 or 2 hours, or passing clots of blood from the vagina.
- Unexpected bleeding after douching or sex.
- Pain during sex.
- Abnormal vaginal discharge containing mucus that may
be tinged with blood.
If you are diagnosed
If you have been diagnosed with
cervical cancer, be sure to follow your doctor's
instructions about calling when you have problems, new symptoms, or symptoms
that get worse.
Who to see
Health professionals who can evaluate your symptoms
and your risk factors, and who can diagnose cervical cancer include:
Doctors who can manage your cancer treatment
include:
To prepare for your appointment, see the topic Making the Most of Your Appointment.
Exams and Tests
Early detection
The
Pap test is a routine screening test used to find
abnormal cell changes of the
cervix and to screen for
cervical cancer. Regular Pap test screening is the
most important tool in finding and treating cervical cell changes
before they progress to cervical cancer.
The recommended Pap test schedule is based on your age and things that increase your risk. Talk to your doctor about how often to have this test.
Diagnostic tests
If cervical cancer is suspected, your
doctor will ask about your
medical history and perform a physical exam, including
a
pelvic exam and a Pap test.
Tests to confirm a diagnosis of cervical cancer include:
Tests to find out the stage and treatment
Tests to find the extent (stage) of cervical cancer include:
- A
cone biopsy or
loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP). These
tests are sometimes recommended to look for the spread of cancer in cervical
tissue.
- A
cystoscopy, to look at the interior lining of the
bladder and the
urethra to see if the cancer has spread to
the urinary system.
- A
proctoscopy, to look at the lower part of the large
intestine (colon) to see if the cancer has
spread to the rectum.
- An
intravenous pyelogram, to see if there is any
blockage of a kidney.
A surgery or procedure may be done to find out the extent of
cervical cancer and treat it at the same time. For more information, see Surgery.
Other tests may be done to help guide treatment decisions. For example, you may have:
Treatment Overview
Cervical cancer
found in its early stages can be successfully treated.
The choice of treatment and the
long-term outcome (prognosis) of
cervical cancer depend on the type and
stage of cancer. Your age, overall health, quality of
life, and desire to be able to have children must also be considered.
Types of treatment
Treatment choices for cervical cancer may be a single
therapy or a combination of therapies, such as:
- Surgery to remove the cancer. The type of surgery needed depends on the
location and extent of cervical cancer and whether you want to have
children. To learn more, see Surgery.
- Chemotherapy, which uses medicines to kill cancer cells. It is usually used as the main treatment or after a hysterectomy. It may also be used along with radiation therapy. To learn more, see Medications.
- Radiation therapy, which uses high-dose X-rays or implants in the vaginal cavity to kill cancer cells. It is used for certain stages of cervical cancer. It is often is used in combination with surgery.
To learn more, see Other Treatment.
For
more information about specific cervical cancer treatments, see the
topics:
Side effects
Most treatments for cervical cancer cause side effects. Your doctor can talk to you about your treatment choices and the side effects from each treatment.
Home treatment may help relieve some common side effects of cancer treatment. For more information, see Home Treatment.
Coping with emotions during treatment
When you first find out that you have cancer, you may feel scared or angry. Or you may feel very calm. It's normal to have a wide range of feelings and for those feelings to change quickly. Some people find that it helps to talk about their feelings with family and friends.
If your emotional reactions to cancer get in the way of your ability to make decisions about your health, it's important to talk with your doctor. Your cancer treatment center may offer psychological or financial services. And a local chapter of the American Cancer Society can help you find a support group.
Body image and sexual problems
Your feelings about your body and your sexuality may
change following treatment for cancer. Managing body image issues may involve talking openly with your
partner about your feelings and discussing your concerns with your doctor. Your
doctor may be able to refer you to organizations that can offer additional
support and information.
Treatment during pregnancy
Cancer treatment during pregnancy is the same as for nonpregnant women. But when you'll get treatment may depend on the stage of your cancer and what trimester you are in. For example, if you have early-stage cervical cancer and you are in your third trimester, your treatment may be delayed until after you deliver your baby. Treatment may cause problems such as an early
delivery or even the loss of the baby.
Follow-up care
After treatment for
cervical cancer, it is important to receive follow-up
care. Your oncologist or
gynecologic oncologist will schedule regular checkups
that will include:2
- A pelvic exam and
Pap test every 3 to 6 months for the first 2 years.
- After the first 2 years, a pelvic exam and Pap test every 6 months for another 3 to 5 years.
- After 5 years, a pelvic exam and Pap test every year.
Follow-up tests that may be recommended by your
oncologist include an
abdominal and pelvic computed tomography (CT) scan. This test is to
see if cancer has spread to other organs in the belly or
pelvis.
Cervical cancer that comes back
Cervical cancer
can return, or recur, after treatment. About 35 out of 100 women with cervical cancer will have
persistent or recurrent disease.3 That means that the cancer doesn't come back in 65 out of 100 cases. The chance that your
cancer will return depends on the stage of the initial cancer. Cancer found
early is less likely to come back than cancer found at a later stage.
Your long-term outcome (prognosis) for
recurrent cervical cancer depends greatly on how much
the cancer has spread when the recurrence is diagnosed.
Palliative care
Cancer treatment has two main goals: curing cancer and making your quality of life as good as possible. Palliative care can improve your quality of life by helping you manage your symptoms. It can also help you with other concerns that you may have when you are living with a serious illness.
For some people who have advanced cancer, a time comes when treatment to cure cancer no longer seems like a good choice. This can be because the side effects, time, and costs of treatment are greater than the promise of cure or relief. But this isn't the end of treatment. You and your doctor can decide when you may be ready for hospice care.
It can be hard to decide when to stop treatment aimed at prolonging your life and shift the focus to end-of-life care. For more information, see the topics:
Prevention
You can treat early cervical cell changes
(dysplasia), which can reduce your risk for
cervical cancer. You can also reduce your risk for abnormal cell changes.
Have regular Pap test screening
The recommended Pap test schedule is based on your age and things that increase your risk. Talk to your doctor about how often to have this test.
Quit smoking
Women who smoke cigarettes or who breathe in secondhand smoke have a higher risk for cervical cell changes that can lead to cervical cancer. Quitting smoking may decrease this risk.4
Get the HPV vaccine
If you are a woman age 26 or younger or a man age 21 and younger, get the HPV vaccine. The vaccines Cervarix(What is a PDF document?) and Gardasil(What is a PDF document?) protect against two types of human papillomavirus (HPV) that cause cervical cancer. It is recommended for children age 11 or 12, but can be given as early as age 9. For girls who have not already gotten the vaccine, it is recommended up to age 26. For boys who have not already gotten the shot, the vaccine is recommended up to age 21. Gardasil is used for males. Females can get either vaccine. For more information,
see the topic
Immunizations.
HPV: Should My Child Get the Vaccine?
Reduce your risk of a sexually transmitted infection (STI)
Preventing an
STI, including HPV, is easier than treating an infection after it occurs. HPV infection usually doesn't cause symptoms, so
you or your partner may not know that you are infected.
To reduce your risk:
- Talk with your partner about STIs before
beginning a sexual relationship. Find out if he or she is at risk for an STI.
Remember that it's possible to be infected with an STI without knowing
it. Some STIs, such as
HIV, can take up to 6 months before they are detected
in the blood.
- Be responsible.
- Avoid
sexual contact if you have symptoms of an STI or are
being treated for an STI.
- Avoid all intimate sexual contact with
anyone who has symptoms of an STI or who may have been exposed to an
STI.
- The fewer sex partners you have in your lifetime, the better it
is for your health. Your risk for an STI increases if you have several sex
partners or if your sex partner has more than one partner.
- Use
male or
female condoms to reduce the risk of getting an STI.
Using male condoms when you have sex has been shown to reduce your risk of
getting HPV.5 Female condoms may help also, although
there has been less study of this type of protection.
Not having sexual contact is the only certain way to
prevent exposure to STIs. Sexually transmitted infections such as human
papillomavirus (HPV) can be spread to or from the genitals, anus, mouth, or
throat during sexual activities.
Home Treatment
The side effects of cancer treatment can be serious. Healthy habits such as eating a balanced diet and getting enough sleep and exercise may help control your symptoms. Your doctor may also give you medicines to help you with certain side effects.
- Home treatment for nausea or vomiting includes watching
for and treating early signs of
dehydration. Signs include a dry mouth, sticky saliva, and
reduced urine output with dark yellow urine. Eating smaller meals may help. A little bit of ginger candy or ginger tea can help too.
- Home treatment for diarrhea includes resting your stomach
and being alert for signs of dehydration. Check with your doctor before using
any nonprescription medicines for your diarrhea.
- Home treatment for constipation includes making sure that you drink
enough fluids and include fruits, vegetables, and fiber in your diet each day.
Don't use a laxative without consulting your doctor.
Other symptoms that can be treated at home include:
- Sleep problems. If you find that you have trouble sleeping, some tips for managing sleep problems may help.
- Fatigue. If you don't have any
energy and tire easily, try some
ways to help your fatigue. These include getting extra
rest, eating a balanced diet, and reducing your stress.
- Urinary
problems, which can be caused by both cervical cancer and its treatment. It may
help to remove caffeinated drinks from your diet and to establish a schedule
of urinating every 3 to 4 hours, whether you feel the
need or not.
- Hair loss. Hair loss may be unavoidable, but using
mild shampoos and avoiding damaging hair products will reduce irritation of
your scalp.
- Stress.Managing stress may include expressing your feelings
to others. Learning relaxation techniques may also be helpful. Relaxation
techniques, such as meditation, and support groups may help too.
- Pain. Not all forms of cancer treatment cause pain. But if you do have pain, there are many home treatments that can help.
For more information, see:
Cancer: Controlling Cancer Pain.
Medications
Chemotherapy is
used to shrink
cervical cancer and decrease tumor growth. It may be used alone or along with radiation
(chemoradiation). Compared with radiation alone, chemoradiation improves
survival.6 It is usually used as the main treatment
or after a hysterectomy.
Chemotherapy may also be used to treat cervical cancer that has spread beyond the cervix.
Medication choices
Common chemotherapy medicines used to treat cervical cancer include:
Dealing with side effects of medicines
Most chemotherapy will cause some
side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and hair loss. Your doctor may also give you medicines to control and prevent nausea and vomiting. Home treatment may also help relieve other common side effects of cancer treatment. For more information, see Home Treatment.
- Cancer: Controlling Nausea and Vomiting From Chemotherapy
Surgery
Surgery to remove
the cancer depends on the
location and extent of cervical cancer and your desire to be able to have
children. You also may be given
radiation therapy,
chemotherapy, or a combination of the two (chemoradiation). These
treatments may be given before or after surgery to try to destroy any cancer
cells that may remain or to help control or shrink the tumor.
Surgery choices
Surgery for very early stages of cervical cancer may
preserve your ability to have children. Surgeries include:
Surgery for most stages of cervical cancer does not
preserve your ability to have children. Surgeries include:
- Hysterectomy with or without removal of
the
ovaries. This removes the cervix and related organs where
recurrence would be most likely.
- Modified radical
hysterectomy with pelvic lymph node dissection. A radical hysterectomy usually
includes removal of part of the vagina, the uterus, the ovaries, and the
fallopian tubes. It removes the most likely sites of
cancer and may reduce the risk of recurrence.
Dealing with side effects of surgery
Side effects
from surgery can include difficulty with urination or problems with bowel
habits, such as constipation or diarrhea. Your ability to have or enjoy sexual
intercourse may also be affected.
Home treatment may help relieve some common side effects of cancer treatment. For more information, see Home Treatment.
Other Treatment
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is used for certain stages of
cervical cancer, often along with
surgery. Chemotherapy may be given at the same time as radiation treatment (chemoradiation) to improve survival rates. Chemoradiation may be used as the main treatment or after a hysterectomy.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy X-rays to
kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside
the body (external radiation therapy). Or it may come from radiation material
(radioisotopes) in thin plastic tubes inserted through the vagina into the
cervical area where the cancer cells are found.
Dealing with side effects of radiation
Radiation may cause many
side effects, including diarrhea and irritation of the bladder (radiation
cystitis). Home treatment may help relieve some common side effects of cancer treatment. For more information, see Home Treatment.
Your ability to have or enjoy sexual intercourse may also be
affected. This is because radiation may cause changes to the cells lining the vagina
(mucosa), making intercourse difficult or painful. A series of vaginal
dilators, starting with a small one and progressing to a larger size, may be
used after radiation therapy. Using the dilators can make the vaginal opening
larger and help make sex less difficult or painful.
Radiation to
treat cervical cancer may thin the bone and increase the risk of fractures in
the pelvic area, including hip fractures. You can take steps to prevent
thinning of the bone (osteoporosis), such as getting enough
calcium and vitamin D. Also, try to
prevent falls, which can lead to fractures. For more information, see the topic
Osteoporosis.
Clinical trials
Some women with
cervical cancer may be interested in taking part in research studies called
clinical trials. Clinical trials are designed to find
better ways to treat cancer patients. They are based on the most up-to-date
information. Women who don't want standard treatments or are not cured using
standard treatments may want to take part in clinical trials. These are
ongoing in most parts of the United States and in some other countries for all
stages of cervical cancer.
Complementary therapy
People sometimes use complementary therapies along with medical treatment to help relieve symptoms and side effects of cancer treatments. Some of the therapies that may be helpful include:
These mind-body treatments may help you feel better. They can make it easier to cope with treatment. They also may reduce chronic low back pain, joint pain, headaches, and pain from treatments.
Before you try a complementary therapy, talk to your doctor about the possible value and potential side effects. Let your doctor know if you are already using any of these therapies. They are not meant to take the place of standard medical treatment.
Other Places To Get Help
Organizations
| American Cancer Society (ACS) |
| Phone: |
1-800-ACS-2345 (1-800-227-2345) |
| TDD: |
1-866-228-4327 toll-free |
| Web Address: |
www.cancer.org |
| |
|
The American Cancer Society (ACS) conducts educational
programs and offers many services to people with cancer and to their families.
Staff at the toll-free numbers have information about services and activities
in local areas and can provide referrals to local ACS divisions.
|
|
| American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
(ACOG) |
| 409 12th Street SW |
| P.O. Box 96920 |
| Washington, DC 20090-6920 |
| Phone: |
(202) 638-5577 |
| Email: |
resources@acog.org |
| Web Address: |
www.acog.org |
| |
|
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
(ACOG) is a nonprofit organization of professionals who provide health care for
women, including teens. The ACOG Resource Center publishes manuals and patient
education materials. The Web publications section of the site has patient
education pamphlets on many women's health topics, including reproductive
health, breast-feeding, violence, and quitting smoking.
|
|
| Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) |
| 1600 Clifton Road |
| Atlanta, GA 30333 |
| Phone: |
1-800-CDC-INFO (1-800-232-4636) |
| TDD: |
1-888-232-6348 |
| Email: |
cdcinfo@cdc.gov |
| Web Address: |
www.cdc.gov |
| |
|
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is
an agency of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The CDC works
with state and local health officials and the public to achieve better health
for all people. The CDC creates the expertise, information, and tools that
people and communities need to protect their health—by promoting health,
preventing disease, injury, and disability, and being prepared for new health
threats.
|
|
| National Cancer Institute (NCI) |
| 6116 Executive Boulevard |
| Suite 300 |
| Bethesda, MD 20892-8322 |
| Phone: |
1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237) |
| Web Address: |
www.cancer.gov (or
https://cissecure.nci.nih.gov/livehelp/welcome.asp# for live help
online) |
| |
|
The National Cancer Institute (NCI) is a U.S. government
agency that provides up-to-date information about the prevention, detection,
and treatment of cancer. NCI also offers supportive care to people who have cancer
and to their families. NCI information is also available to doctors, nurses,
and other health professionals. NCI provides the latest information about
clinical trials. The Cancer Information Service, a service of NCI, has trained
staff members available to answer questions and send free publications.
Spanish-speaking staff members are also available.
|
|
| National Women's Health Information
Center |
| 8270 Willow Oaks Corporate Drive |
| Fairfax, VA 22031 |
| Phone: |
1-800-994-9662
(202) 690-7650 |
| Fax: |
(202) 205-2631 |
| TDD: |
1-888-220-5446 |
| Web Address: |
www.womenshealth.gov |
| |
|
The National Women's Health Information Center (NWHIC)
is a service of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on
Women's Health. NWHIC provides women's health information to a variety of
audiences, including consumers, health professionals, and researchers.
|
|
| Women's Cancer Network |
| 230 West Monroe |
| Suite Suite 2528 |
| Chicago, IL 60606 |
| Phone: |
312-578-1439 |
| Email: |
info@thegcf.org |
| Web Address: |
www.wcn.org |
| |
|
The Women's Cancer Network provides information about
cancers of the female reproductive tract (ovary, endometrium, cervix, vulva,
and vagina) for women and their families. Their goal is to help women
understand more about the disease, learn about treatment options, and have
access to new or experimental therapies.
This Web site was
developed by The Gynecologic Cancer Foundation, a non-profit organization with
a mission to help people learn how to prevent, diagnose, and treat cancers of
the female reproductive tract.
|
|
References
Citations
- Chirenje ZM (2005). HIV and cancer of the cervix. Best Practice and Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 19(2): 269–276.
- National Comprehensive Cancer Network (2010). Cervical Cancer, version 1. Available online: http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/PDF/cervical.pdf.
- American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
(2002, reaffirmed 2008). Diagnosis and treatment of cervical carcinomas. ACOG
Practice Bulletin No. 35. Obstetrics and Gynecology,
99(5): 855–867.
- National Cancer Institute (2010). Cervical Cancer (PDQ): Prevention—Health Professional Version.
Available online:
http://www.nci.nih.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/cervical/healthprofessional.
- Winer RL, et al. (2006). Condom use and the risk of genital human papillomavirus infection in young women. New England Journal of Medicine, 354(25): 2645–2654.
- Sundar S, et al. (2008). Cervical cancer, search date
November 2006. Online version of BMJ Clinical Evidence.
Also available online: http://www.clinicalevidence.com.
Other Works Consulted
- American Cancer Society (2009). Cancer Facts and Figures for African Americans 2009–2010. Atlanta: American
Cancer Society. Available online:
http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/cffaa_2009-2010.pdf.
- Balasubramanian A, et al. (2008). Cervical neoplasia and other STD-related genital tract neoplasias. In KK Holmes et al., eds., Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 4th ed., pp. 1051–1074. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Eifel PJ, et al. (2008). Cancer of the cervix, vagina, and vulva. In VT DeVita Jr et al., eds., DeVita, Hellman, and Rosenberg’s Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology, 8th ed., vol. 2, pp. 1496–1543. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
- National Cancer Institute (2010). Cervical Cancer PDQ: Treatment – Health Professional Version. Available online: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/cervical/HealthProfessional.
- National Cancer Institute (2010). Cervical Cancer PDQ: Treatment – Patient Version. Available online: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/cervical/patient.
- U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2012). Screening for cervical cancer: Summary of recommendations. Available online: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/uspscerv.htm.
Credits
| By |
Healthwise Staff |
| Primary Medical Reviewer |
Adam Husney, MD - Family Medicine |
| Specialist Medical Reviewer |
Ross Berkowitz, MD - Obstetrics and Gynecology |
| Last Revised |
May 4, 2012 |
