General Information About Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the prostate.

The prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system located just below the bladder (the organ that collects and empties urine ) and in front of the rectum (the lower part of the intestine ). It is about the size of a walnut and surrounds part of the urethra (the tube that empties urine from the bladder). The prostate gland produces fluid that makes up part of the semen.

Anatomy of the male reproductive and urinary systems, showing the prostate, testicles, bladder, and other organs.

Prostate cancer is found mainly in older men. As men age, the prostate may get bigger and block the urethra or bladder. This may cause difficulty in urination or can interfere with sexual function. The condition is called benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and although it is not cancer, surgery may be needed to correct it. The symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia or of other problems in the prostate may be similar to symptoms of prostate cancer.

Normal prostate and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). A normal prostate does not block the flow of urine from the bladder. An enlarged prostate presses on the bladder and urethra and blocks the flow of urine.

Possible signs of prostate cancer include a weak flow of urine or frequent urination.

These and other symptoms may be caused by prostate cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:

• Weak or interrupted flow of urine.
• Frequent urination (especially at night).
• Trouble urinating.
• Pain or burning during urination.
• Bloodin the urine or semen.
• A pain in the back, hips, orpelvisthat doesn't go away.
• Painfulejaculation.

Tests that examine the prostate and blood are used to detect (find) and diagnose prostate cancer.

The following tests and procedures may be used:

• Digital rectal exam (DRE): An exam of the rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum and feels the prostate through the rectal wall for lumps orabnormalareas.
  
  Digital rectal exam (DRE). The doctor inserts a gloved, lubricated finger into the rectum and feels the prostate to check for anything abnormal.
• Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test : A test that measures the level of PSA in the blood. PSA is a substance made by the prostate that may be found in an increased amount in the blood of men who have prostate cancer. PSA levels may also be high in men who have aninfection orinflammationof the prostate or BPH (an enlarged, but noncancerous, prostate).
• Transrectal ultrasound : A procedure in which aprobe that is about the size of a finger is inserted into the rectum to check the prostate. The probe is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internaltissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. Transrectal ultrasound may be used during abiopsyprocedure.
  
  Transrectal ultrasound. An ultrasound probe is inserted into the rectum to check the prostate. The probe bounces sound waves off body tissues to make echoes that form a sonogram (computer picture) of the prostate.
• Biopsy: The removal ofcells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by apathologist . The pathologist will examine the biopsy sample to check for cancer cells and determine theGleason score . The Gleason score ranges from 2-10 and describes how likely it is that atumor will spread. The lower the number, the less likely the tumor is to spread. There are 2 types of biopsy procedures used todiagnoseprostate cancer:
  • Transrectal biopsy: The removal of tissue from the prostate by inserting a thin needle through the rectum and into the prostate. This procedure is usually done using transrectal ultrasound to help guide the needle. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells.
    
    Transrectal biopsy. An ultrasound probe is inserted into the rectum to show where the tumor is. Then a needle is inserted through the rectum into the prostate to remove tissue from the prostate.
  • Transperineal biopsy : The removal of tissue from the prostate by inserting a thin needle through the skin between thescrotumand rectum and into the prostate. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells.

Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

• Thestageof the cancer (whether it affects part of the prostate, involves the whole prostate, or has spread to other places in the body).
• The patient's age and health.
• Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or hasrecurred(come back).

Prognosis also depends on the Gleason score and the level of PSA.

Stages of Prostate Cancer

After prostate cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the prostate or to other parts of the body.

The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the prostate or to other parts of the body is called staging . The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment. The following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process:

• Radionuclide bone scan : A procedure to check if there are rapidly dividingcells , such as cancer cells, in the bone. A very small amount ofradioactive material isinjected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream. The radioactive material collects in the bones and is detected by ascanner.
  
  Bone scan. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into the patient's bloodstream and collects in abnormal cells in the bones. As the patient lies on a table that slides under the scanner, the radioactive material is detected and images are made on a computer screen or film.
• MRI(magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
• Pelvic lymphadenectomy : A surgical procedure to remove thelymph nodes in thepelvis . Apathologist views thetissueunder a microscope to look for cancer cells.
• CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to anx-ray machine. Adye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help theorgansor tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
• Seminal vesicle biopsy : The removal offluid from theseminal vesicles (glands that producesemen) using a needle. A pathologist views the fluid under a microscope to look for cancer cells.

The stage of the cancer is based on the results of the staging and diagnostic tests , including the prostate specific antigen (PSA) test and the original tumor biopsy . The biopsy is used to determine the Gleason score. The Gleason score ranges from 2-10 and describes how different the cancer cells look from normal cells and how likely it is that the tumor will spread. The lower the number, the less likely the tumor is to spread.

There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.

The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are:

• Throughtissue . Cancerinvadesthe surrounding normal tissue.
• Through thelymph system . Cancer invades the lymph system and travels through thelymph vesselsto other places in the body.
• Through theblood . Cancer invades theveins andcapillariesand travels through the blood to other places in the body.

When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form. This process is called metastasis . The secondary (metastatic) tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer.

The following stages are used for prostate cancer:

As prostate cancer progresses from Stage I to Stage IV, the cancer cells grow within the prostate, through the outer layer of the prostate into nearby tissue, and then to lymph nodes or other parts of the body.

Stage I

In stage I , cancer is found in the prostate only. The cancer:

• is found byneedle biopsy (such as for a highPSA level) or in a small amount oftissue duringsurgery for other reasons (such asbenign prostatic hyperplasia ). The PSA level is lower than 10 and theGleason scoreis 6 or lower; or
• is found in one-half or less of onelobeof the prostate. The PSA level is lower than 10 and the Gleason score is 6 or lower; or
• cannot be felt during adigital rectal exam and is not visible byimaging. Cancer is found in one-half or less of one lobe of the prostate. The PSA level and the Gleason score are not known.

Stage II

In stage II , cancer is more advanced than in stage I , but has not spread outside the prostate. Stage II is divided into stage IIA and stage IIB.

In stage IIA, cancer:

• is found byneedle biopsy (such as for a highPSA level) or in a small amount oftissue duringsurgery for other reasons (such asbenign prostatic hyperplasia ). The PSA level is lower than 20 and theGleason scoreis 7; or
• is found by needle biopsy (such as for a high PSA level) or in a small amount of tissue during surgery for other reasons (such as benign prostatic hyperplasia). The PSA level is at least 10 but lower than 20 and the Gleason score is 6 or lower; or
• is found in one-half or less of onelobeof the prostate. The PSA level is at least 10 but lower than 20 and the Gleason score is 6 or lower; or
• is found in one-half or less of one lobe of the prostate. The PSA level is lower than 20 and the Gleason score is 7; or
• is found in more than one-half of one lobe of the prostate. The PSA level is lower than 20 and the Gleason score is 7 or lower; or
• is found in more than one-half of one lobe of the prostate. The PSA level and the Gleason score are not known.

In stage IIB, cancer:

• is found in bothlobes of the prostate. ThePSA can be any level and theGleason scorecan range from 2 to 10; or
• cannot be felt during adigital rectal exam and is not visible byimaging , and thetumorhas not spread outside the prostate. The PSA level is 20 or higher and the Gleason score can range from 2 to 10; or
• cannot be felt during a digital rectal exam and is not visible by imaging, and the tumor has not spread outside the prostate. The PSA can be any level and the Gleason score is 8 or higher.

Stage III

In stage III , cancer has spread beyond the outer layer of the prostate on one or both sides and may have spread to the seminal vesicles . The PSA can be any level and the Gleason score can range from 2 to 10.

Stage IV

In stage IV , the PSA can be any level and the Gleason score can range from 2 to 10. Also, cancer:

• has spread beyond theseminal vesicles to nearbytissue ororgans , such as therectum ,bladder , orpelvic wall; or
• may have spread to the seminal vesicles or to nearby tissue or organs, such as the rectum, bladder, or pelvic wall. Cancer has spread to nearbylymph nodes; or
• has spread to distant parts of the body, which may include lymph nodes or bones.Prostate canceroften spreads to the bones.

Recurrent Prostate Cancer

Recurrent prostate cancer is cancer that has recurred (come back) after it has been treated. The cancer may come back in the prostate or in other parts of the body.

Treatment Option Overview

There are different types of treatment for patients with prostate cancer.

Different types of treatment are available for patients with prostate cancer . Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials . A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment. Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.

Six types of standard treatment are used:

Watchful waiting or active surveillance

Watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patient's condition without giving any treatment until symptoms appear or change.

Active surveillance is closely following a patient's condition without giving any treatment unless there are changes in test results. It is used to find early signs that the condition is getting worse. In active surveillance, patients are given certain exams and tests, including biopsies, on a regular schedule.

Surgery

Patients in good health are usually offered surgery as treatment for prostate cancer. The following types of surgery are used:

• Pelvic lymphadenectomy : A surgical procedure to remove thelymph nodes in the pelvis. Apathologist views thetissue under a microscope to look for cancercells . If the lymph nodes contain cancer, the doctor will not remove theprostateand may recommend other treatment.
• Radical prostatectomy : A surgical procedure to remove the prostate, surrounding tissue, andseminal vesicles. There are 2 types of radical prostatectomy:
  • Retropubic prostatectomy : A surgical procedure to remove the prostate through anincision (cut) in theabdominalwall. Removal of nearby lymph nodes may be done at the same time.
  • Perineal prostatectomy : A surgical procedure to remove the prostate through an incision (cut) made in theperineum (area between thescrotum andanus). Nearby lymph nodes may also be removed through a separate incision in the abdomen.
  
  
  Two types of radical prostatectomy. In a retropubic prostatectomy, the prostate is removed through an incision in the wall of the abdomen. In a perineal prostatectomy, the prostate is removed through an incision in the area between the scrotum and the anus.
• Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP): A surgical procedure to remove tissue from the prostate using a resectoscope (a thin, lighted tube with a cutting tool) inserted through theurethra . This procedure is sometimes done to relieve symptoms caused by atumorbefore other cancer treatment is given. Transurethral resection of the prostate may also be done in men who cannot have a radical prostatectomy because of age or illness.
  
  Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP). Tissue is removed from the prostate using a resectoscope (a thin, lighted tube with a cutting tool at the end) inserted through the urethra. Prostate tissue that is blocking the urethra is cut away and removed through the resectoscope.

Impotence and leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum may occur in men treated with surgery. In some cases, doctors can use a technique known as nerve-sparing surgery. This type of surgery may save the nerves that control erection. However, men with large tumors or tumors that are very close to the nerves may not be able to have this surgery.

The penis may be 1 to 2 centimeters shorter after a radical prostatectomy. The exact reason for this is not known.

Inguinal hernia is bulging of fat or part of the small intestine through weak muscles into the groin . Inguinal hernia may occur more often in men treated with radical prostatectomy than in men who have some other types of prostate surgery, radiation therapy , or prostate biopsy alone. It is most likely to occur within the first 2 years after radical prostatectomy.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are two types of radiation therapy. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds , wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer. The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.

There is an increased risk of bladder cancer and/or rectal cancer in men treated with radiation therapy.

Impotence and urinary problems may occur in men treated with radiation therapy.

Hormone therapy

Hormone therapy is a cancer treatment that removes hormones or blocks their action and stops cancer cells from growing. Hormones are substances produced by glands in the body and circulated in the bloodstream. In prostate cancer, male sex hormones can cause prostate cancer to grow. Drugs, surgery, or other hormones are used to reduce the production of male hormones or block them from working.

Hormone therapy used in the treatment of prostate cancer may include the following:

• Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists can prevent thetesticles from producingtestosterone . Examples areleuprolide ,goserelin , andbuserelin.
• Antiandrogens can block the action ofandrogens (hormones that promote male sex characteristics). Two examples areflutamide andnilutamide.
• Drugs that can prevent theadrenal glands from making androgens includeketoconazole andaminoglutethimide.
• Orchiectomyis a surgical procedure to remove one or both testicles, the main source of male hormones, to decrease hormone production.
• Estrogens (hormones that promote female sex characteristics) can prevent the testicles from producing testosterone. However, estrogens are seldom used today in the treatment of prostate cancer because of the risk of seriousside effects.

Hot flashes , impaired sexual function, loss of desire for sex, and weakened bones may occur in men treated with hormone therapy. Other side effects include diarrhea , nausea , and pruritus (itching).

See Drugs Approved for Prostate Cancer for more information.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy ). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid , an organ , or a body cavity such as the abdomen , the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.

See Drugs Approved for Prostate Cancer for more information.

Biologic therapy

Biologic therapy is a treatment that uses the patient's immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. This type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or immunotherapy. Sipuleucel-T is a type of biologic therapy used to treat prostate cancer that has metastasized (spread to other parts of the body).

See Drugs Approved for Prostate Cancer for more information.

New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.

This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

Cryosurgery

Cryosurgery is a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy prostate cancer cells. This type of treatment is also called cryotherapy.

Impotence and leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum may occur in men treated with cryosurgery.

High-intensity focused ultrasound

High-intensity focused ultrasound is a treatment that uses ultrasound (high-energy sound waves) to destroy cancer cells. To treat prostate cancer, an endorectal probe is used to make the sound waves.

Proton beam radiation therapy

Proton beam radiation therapy is a type of high-energy, external radiation therapy that targets tumors with streams of protons (small, positively charged particles). This type of radiation therapy is being studied in the treatment of prostate cancer.

Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.

For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.

Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.

Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.

Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.

Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials.

Follow-up tests may be needed.

Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests. This is sometimes called re-staging.

Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.

Treatment Options by Stage

A link to a list of current clinical trials is included for each treatment section. For some types or stages of cancer, there may not be any trials listed. Check with your doctor for clinical trials that are not listed here but may be right for you.

Stage I Prostate Cancer

Treatment of stage I prostate cancer may include the following:

• Watchful waiting oractive surveillance.
• Radical prostatectomy , usually withpelvic lymphadenectomy , with or withoutradiation therapy aftersurgery . It may be possible to remove theprostate without damaging nerves that are necessary for anerection.
• External-beam radiation therapy.
• Implant radiation therapy.
• Aclinical trial of high-intensity focusedultrasound.
• A clinical trial testing new types of treatment.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage I prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

Stage II Prostate Cancer

Treatment of stage II prostate cancer may include the following:

• Watchful waiting oractive surveillance.
• Radical prostatectomy , with or withoutpelvic lymphadenectomy .Radiation therapy may be given aftersurgery . It may be possible to remove theprostate without damaging nerves that are necessary for anerection.
• External-beam radiation therapy with or withouthormone therapy.
• Implant radiation therapy.
• Aclinical trialof radiation therapy with or without hormone therapy.
• A clinical trial ofultrasound -guidedcryosurgery.
• A clinical trial ofhigh-intensity focused ultrasound.
• A clinical trial ofproton beam radiation therapy.
• Clinical trials testing new types of treatment, such as hormone therapy followed by radical prostatectomy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage II prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

Stage III Prostate Cancer

Treatment of stage III prostate cancer may include the following:

• External-beam radiation therapy with or withouthormone therapy.
• Hormone therapy.
• Radical prostatectomy , with or withoutpelvic lymphadenectomy .Radiation therapy may be given aftersurgery.
• Watchful waiting oractive surveillance.
• Radiation therapy, hormone therapy, ortransurethral resection of the prostate aspalliative therapy to relievesymptomscaused by the cancer.
• Aclinical trialof radiation therapy.
• A clinical trial ofultrasound -guidedcryosurgery.
• A clinical trial testing new types of treatment.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage III prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

Stage IV Prostate Cancer

Treatment of stage IV prostate cancer may include the following:

• Hormone therapy.
• External-beam radiation therapy with or withouthormone therapy.
• Radiation therapy ortransurethral resection of the prostate aspalliative therapy to relievesymptomscaused by the cancer.
• Watchful waiting oractive surveillance.
• Aclinical trial ofradical prostatectomy withorchiectomy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage IV prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

Treatment Options for Recurrent Prostate Cancer

Treatment of recurrent prostate cancer may include the following:

• Radiation therapy.
• Prostatectomyfor patients initially treated with radiation therapy.
• Hormone therapy.
• Biologic therapy withsipuleucel-Tfor patients already treated with hormone therapy.
• Chemotherapy.
• Pain medication,external radiation therapy ,internal radiation therapy withradioisotopes such asstrontium-89 , or other treatments aspalliative therapyto lessen bone pain.
• Aclinical trial ofultrasound -guidedcryosurgery.
• A clinical trial of new anticancerdrugs.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with recurrent prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

To Learn More About Prostate Cancer

For more information from the National Cancer Institute about prostate cancer, see the following:

• Prostate Cancer Home Page
• What You Need to Know About™ Prostate Cancer
• Prostate Cancer Prevention
• Prostate Cancer Screening
• Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test
• Treatment Choices for Men with Early-Stage Prostate Cancer
• Drugs Approved for Prostate Cancer
• Cryosurgery in Cancer Treatment: Questions and Answers

For general cancer information and other resources from the National Cancer Institute, see the following:

• What You Need to Know About™ Cancer
• Understanding Cancer Series: Cancer
• Cancer Staging
• Chemotherapy and You: Support for People With Cancer
• Radiation Therapy and You: Support for People With Cancer
• Coping with Cancer: Supportive and Palliative Care
• Questions to Ask Your Doctor About Cancer
• Cancer Library
• Information For Survivors/Caregivers/Advocates

Changes to This Summary (11 / 10 / 2011)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Editorial changes were made to this summary.

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PDQ is a comprehensive cancer database available on NCI's Web site.

PDQ is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. Most of the information contained in PDQ is available online at NCI's Web site. PDQ is provided as a service of the NCI. The NCI is part of the National Institutes of Health, the federal government's focal point for biomedical research.

PDQ contains cancer information summaries.

The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries are available in two versions. The health professional versions provide detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions provide current and accurate cancer information.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are developed by cancer experts and reviewed regularly.

Editorial Boards made up of experts in oncology and related specialties are responsible for writing and maintaining the cancer information summaries. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made as new information becomes available. The date on each summary ("Date Last Modified") indicates the time of the most recent change.

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A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.

Listings of clinical trials are included in PDQ and are available online at NCI's Web site. Descriptions of the trials are available in health professional and patient versions. Many cancer doctors who take part in clinical trials are also listed in PDQ. For more information, call the Cancer Information Service 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237).

Last Revised: 2011-11-10

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